Sanatan Dharma

     Linking religion with sect or religion is actually limiting the understanding of religion, since the western world is associated only with sect or ‘faith’, hence being ignorant of the Indian viewpoint, it keeps calling ‘Dharma’ as ‘Mazhab’ which is absolutely wrong, in reality the only pure religion is ‘Sanatan Dharma’, all the rest are just its branches i.e. ‘Sampradaya’ and ‘Panth’. Religion is not limited to humans only, it is spread in the entire world/universe; living and non-living things including animals, birds and trees, apart from the five great elements are also governed by Dharma, in reality Dharma is the driving force of nature! Dharma is that sacred ritual which purifies the consciousness. Dharma is that element by whose conduct a person is able to fulfill his life. It is the influence of the development of human qualities in man, it is the good intention of the universal consciousness. The interpreters of medieval religion considered every activity in the world as the will of God, philosophers propounded the reason for the misery of a person's present life in the formula of 'Karma-Siddhanta'. The result of this in the medieval period was that the cause of all the present troubles was considered to be 'fate' or God's will. The misery of the society or the country was considered its destiny. The society itself became fatalistic and remained satisfied with its happy and sad situations.

Today's era has given this awareness that man has to make the path of development himself. The solution of the problems of a society or country is possible through skill, system-change, scientific and technological development, hard work and devotion. Today's man is more interested in improving his present life. His focus is not 'future-oriented' but on the present. He is engaged in the effort to bring divinity down to his own earth. He is desperate to make the earth itself a heaven. That is, he is moving towards the reality of Sanatan.

Branches of present-day Sanatan
Hindu is the oldest - the stem of Sanatan

The Hindu Sanatan group believes that there is only one religion in the whole world, the eternal Sanatan Dharma. The religion that has been in existence since the origin of the universe is called Sanatan Dharma. Apart from this, all other sects, religions, mazhabs, sects are just that. The religious books of Hindus are Vedas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Shrimad Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, Puranas, Mahabharata etc. Vedas are pure spiritual and scientific texts. Vedas are the ocean of eternal truth knowledge beyond the definition of western religion and the beliefs and philosophy of sects and sampradayas. Vedas have been composed to introduce humans to true knowledge. Vedas do not represent sects, sampradayas, mazhabs, religions etc., but are only and only for humans.

Jainism - the first branch of the Sanatan stem

Jain Sanatan group believes that this world, which is a point, has been going on since time immemorial, and will continue to go on till eternity and civilization will keep on developing continuously. Those who have conquered themselves, that is, have conquered attachment, passion, hatred, are Jains, that is, those who follow them. God does not exist separately, but a person can become God by practicing the meditation of his pure soul. God does not do anything, he only knows, everything happens due to the rise of one's own karmas. There is no bondage, you think, understand, contemplate, then do whatever you feel like doing as soon as possible. Jain Sanatan thought is the only such thought in the world which gives freedom to a person. In Jain Sanatan thought, there is no salutation to God, but there is salutation to his qualities.

Second branch of Buddhist- Sanatan stem

Buddhist Sanatan group is a true eternal, system derived from Shramana tradition. It is believed that through this Sanatan all other religions and sects have originated (Es Dhammo Sanantano- Lord's teachings in Dhammapada). This is called the pure Satyasaddhamma path. There have been Buddhas even before Lord Gautam Buddha. The founder of the Buddhist group is Buddhahood himself, not Lord Gautam Buddha. He has given great teachings by converting Dhammachakka and carried forward the eternal tradition of the Buddhas. The Buddhist group denies the existence of God and the centre point of this group is human being. Buddhists believe in the principles of Dharma and Karma, which were propagated by Tathagata Lord Gautam Buddha. Buddhists bow to Lord Gautam Buddha. Tripitaka is the Buddhist religious text.

Abrahamic - Western branch of Sanatan

Abrahamic, the western branch of Sanatan, believes in one God and considers Abraham (Arabic - إِبْرَاهِيْمُ‎ ) as a prophet of God. These include Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Baha'i ideology, etc. These ideologies developed in the Middle East and are monotheistic. Jewish tradition is one of the oldest ideologies in the world.
It is not a formally established sect, neither does it have any followers nor does it have any foundation. Experts even say that it is just a spiritual project whose aim is to eliminate the differences between Islam, Christianity and Judaism by looking at the similarities between them and generally these three religions are placed in the category of Abrahamic religion. Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons collectively formed the nation of the Israelites in Canaan; Islamic tradition claims that the twelve Arab tribes known as the Ishmaelites descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael in Arabia; Bahá'í tradition claims that Bahá'u'lláh was a descendant of Abraham through his wife Keturah. Even after a century of archaeological investigation, no evidence has been found for these historical patriarchs. Most scholars believe that the story of Abraham originated in the sixth century BCE, and that the Book of Genesis does not represent historical events.

Christianity - the school of thought propounded in the Mediterranean region of Europe after Jainism and Buddha
In Sanatan, the school of thought propounded by Jesus Christ 2024 years ago in the West i.e. Central Asia and the Mediterranean region of Europe after Jainism and Buddha, is a sect divided into more than 43,000 sects followed by the maximum population of the world in the form of Christianity. This sect believes that God is a soul and the soul does not have bones and flesh, how can we make an idol of that which we cannot see? No one has ever seen that Almighty God with physical eyes. But God showed his love for mankind in this way that he took the form of a human. That Almighty God who created time, time and man. He himself came confined in his time, so that mankind can get rid of their sins through him. This religion spread like a revolution till the fourth century, but after this, the dominance of excessive rituals and religious authority in Christianity pushed the world into the Dark Age. As a result, since the Renaissance, more emphasis is given on spiritual transformation rather than rituals. The Christian scripture Bible has two parts. The first part is called the Old Testament, which is a version of the Jewish scripture Tanakh. The second part is called the New Testament and describes the teachings, miracles and works of Jesus Christ and his disciples.

Islamism - Arab and North African branch of Sanatan

Islam (Arabic - Al-Islam) is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion derived from a prophetic tradition. It started in the Arabian Peninsula in the beginning of the 7th century, around Hijri 1445 BC i.e. {wwAD). According to Islamic tradition, Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran, the book revealed to humans by Allah's last prophet Muhammad, and it includes Hadith, Sirat un-Nabi and Shariat texts. Sunni, Shia, Sufi and Ahmadiya communities are prominent in Islam. The religious places of Islam are called mosques. Islam is the second largest religion in the world according to the total population of followers. Islam is based on the Quran. Its followers are called Muslims. Islam believes in only one God, whom Muslims call Allah. Hazrat Muhammad is considered to be the last and greatest messenger (Prophet or Rasool) of Allah. Worship of gods and idols is prohibited in Islam. The word Islam is pronounced from the Arabic language (Salm). It means to be peaceful, or to surrender; a person attains real peace only by surrendering to God. According to Islamic beliefs, God created the first human (Adam) and sent him to earth and made a 'couple' from him, which started the process of procreation! This procreation continues uninterrupted. And this is the second most populous ideology in the world, divided into 72 sects and 533 communities. For Islam, all the religious books given by Allah to the messengers are valid. According to Islam, the Quran is the last religious book given by God to man. Four more books are important in the Quran- (1) Sahuf e Ibrahimi which was given to Prophet Ibrahim, (2) Torah which was given to Prophet Moses, (3) Zabur which was given to King Dawood, (4) Injeel which was given to Prophet Jesus. Muslims believe that Jews and Christians have changed the messages of their books. According to the beliefs of Muslims, the human race got divided into two main parts- (1) One group lived their lives by devoting themselves (Muslims) to the principles (knowledge) given by the divine messengers, (2) The second group lived their lives by adopting the attitude of their limited knowledge (speculation, conjecture) and turning away from the divine messengers (Kafir).

Sikhism - the stem of Sanatan, a branch formed for the protection of Hinduism

The Sikh Panth group (Khalsa or Sikhmat; Punjabi) is an ideology started by Guru Nanak Dev Ji in the 15th century during the Mughal Sultanate on South Asia (1556-1707) to protect the human rights of the people. The religious texts of the Sikhs are Sri Adi Granth Sahib or Guru Granth Sahib and Dasam Granth. In Sikhism, their religious place is called Gurudwara. Generally, there are ten Satgurus of Sikhs, but in the religious text of Sikhs, there are the Bani of thirty Bhagats including six Gurus, whose teachings are considered important for following the Sikh path.

Charvaka and Communism - Groups of those who do not believe in God in Sanatan

Since the Vedic period, the group that does not believe in the Vedas and God is considered to be the ideology of Charvaka. The texts related to this ideology are almost unavailable. The Manifesto of the Communist Party (Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei) propounded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels was originally published in London in 1848 due to the inhuman exploitation and oppression of agricultural and industrial workers at the time of the Industrial Revolution in European countries like Persia, Britain, Germany, France, etc. With the slogan ‘Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose but your chains’, the Manifesto ends with a decisive and famous call for solidarity, concluding, (1) Capitalism does not offer humanity the possibility of self-realization, instead it ensures that man remains backward and alienated forever, (2) Capitalism will bring about its own destruction by polarizing and unifying the proletariat, and a revolution will lead to the emergence of communism, (3) a classless society in which ‘the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all’. Marx and Engels propose the following transitional policies- (1) Abolition of private property in land and inheritance; (2) the introduction of a progressive income tax; (3) the confiscation of the property of rebels; (4) the nationalization of credit, communications and transport; (5) the expansion and integration of industry and agriculture; (6) the introduction of universal obligation of labour; and (7) the provision of universal education and the abolition of child labour. This latest branch of Sanatan comprises more than a third of the population.

So who is man?

Man is responsible for the rise and fall of civilisation whether he believes in God or not. The eternal truth is that a human being is born naked and helpless after staying in the mother's womb for nine months. In the full life span of about 100 years, he learns, sees and experiences some ways of living according to the circumstances by staying under the care of parents for about 10 to 15 years. At the age of 16 to 20, he starts doing something and getting attracted to the opposite sex according to the law of heredity of nature and starts feeling like forming a pair. Till the age of 50-60, he is engaged in earning money and resources and forming and nurturing a family. Till the age of 60-70, he sees the birth and fall of his children and gradually starts feeling old. Death comes between 70-100 years. No matter how capable or wealthy he is, it is not known where death takes him, making him even more helpless than the condition at the time of birth. In an attempt to understand this process, innumerable texts ranging from Vedas to Communist Manifesto have been written, made and are being made, but every living being in the universe (including plants) is afraid of death. Some feel it but cannot do anything, some become the natural food of others and some come out as different substances. Humans keep doing research on all the processes. Every dead person becomes the seed of his own group as the semen of the father and mixes with the menstrual blood of the mother and then is born in an unknown place under unknown circumstances and then starts his life journey of a maximum of 100 years, again accepting death, to be born again according to Hindus or to wait in the grave till the Doomsday according to Islam. It is not necessary that if a human is born, he will live for 100 years, he can die in the womb itself, he can die as soon as he is born, he can die anytime and anywhere in childhood or youth or old age. I don't know why he has come, I don't know what he has come to do, I don't know who has sent him, I don't know what will happen in the next moment, yet as long as he breathes, thinks, wanders, contemplates, fights, quarrels, sleeps, wakes, does some work directed or voluntarily and then merges into the unknown, this is Sanatan, everything else is just the footprints left by man in the form of seeds billions of years ago, aligned with the memories of time and situation based experiences of infinite knowledge and system chains! Then all are Sanatan, neither Hindu, nor Jain, nor Buddha, nor Christian, nor Muslim, nor Charvak, nor Communist! All of them are children of that supreme power who, evolving from a single-celled organism, have been coming and going in the continuous cycle of movement of humanity and divinity since unknown time and will keep coming and going till unknown time! So be it.  

the literal meaning of ‘Sanatan’ is – eternal or ‘ever-lasting’, that is, which has neither beginning nor end.

achedyo'yamadahyo'yamakledyo'shoshya eva ch. 
Nityah Sarvagatah Sthanurchaloyaam Sanatanah.
                                                                                         (Gita, Chapter 2- Verse 24)

That is, O Arjun! That which is not pierced, that which is not burnt, that which does not dry, that which does not get wet, that which does not change its place is Sanatan. Such mysterious and Satvik qualities are only in the Supreme Soul, the being which is full of these divine qualities is worthy of being called Sanatan. That is, only God is called Sanatan. Sanatan culture is not a process which tells you to believe in it, otherwise you will die, or you will benefit, or you will suffer loss, you will get salvation, you will get forgiveness of sins, some God will decide at the time of doomsday, the one who believes in the prophet will be a Momin and the one who does not believe will be a Kafir, etc. This culture inspires you to constantly question and remain engaged in intense curiosity to know your creator with the blossoming of the soul with happiness, peace, satisfaction of all as the solution. Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinah Sarve Santu Niramaya, Sarve Bhadrani Pashyantu Ma Kashchid Dukh Bhagbhavet. om Shanti: Shanti: Shanti:, that is, everyone should be happy, everyone should be healthy, everyone should be well, no one should have any sorrow. om Shanti: Shanti: Shanti:.

Religion

Religion is that element by following which a person can fulfill his life. This is the effect of development of human qualities in man, the good resolve of universal consciousness. ‘Dharayati - Iti Dharma:’ That means that which is worth adopting, that is religion. yato'bhyudayani:shreyasasiddhi: sa dharm:. - Vaisheshika Sutra 1.1.2, that is, that which leads to true progress (self-strength) and ultimate welfare (moksha), is religion. Dhriti: Kshama Damoasteyam Shauchamindrianigraha. Dhirvidya Satyamkrodho Dashakam Dharmalakshanam. Manusmriti 6.52, i.e. Dhriti (patience), Kshama, Dam (always engaged in Dharma with restraint), Asteya, Saucha, Indriya Nigraha, Dhi (enhancing intelligence by good deeds), Vidya (acquiring true knowledge), Truth and anger, Dharma Are symptoms of. Practicing religion means that we follow the characteristics of religion mentioned in the scriptures. Religion is that element by whose conduct a person is able to fulfill his life. This is the effect of development of human qualities in man, the good resolve of universal consciousness. It is said in Rigveda, ˜æèç‡æÐÐ Â-ÎæÐ çßÐ ¿-·ý¤-×ð-Ð çßc‡æéÑÐÐ »ô-ÂæÑÐ ¥ÎæÐØÑÐ ¥ÌÑÐÐ Ï×æüÐç‡æÐ Ïæ-ÚUØÐÙ÷ÐÐ Rigveda (1. 22. 18) Anvay including Sandhi Vishvas - Yataah Ayam Adabhya: Gopa Vishnu: Ishwar: Sarvam Jagat Dharayan San Trini Padani Vi Chakrame Ata Karanat Utpadya Sarve Pratara: Swani Swani Dharmaani Dharanti..18. Meaning of the word, (Yat:) = due to which, (Ayam) = this, (Adabhya:) Avinashitvannaiva Kenapi Hinsitum Shakya: = cannot cause violence to anyone with its indestructibility, (Gopa:) Rakshak: = and the entire world. He is the one who protects, (Vishnu:) Vishvantaryaami=the innermost one of the world, (Ishwar:)=God, (Dharayan) Dharana Kurvan=holding, (San)=doing, (Trini) Trividhani=three types, (Pada) Padaani Vedyaani Prapatvyani Va Jaane=of things and behavior capable of being known and attained, (Vi) Vividharthe=in various meanings, (Chakre) Vihitvaan= has been created, (Ata) Karanadutpadya= for this reason, (Sarve)=all, (Padharta:)=substances. In, (Svani) = one's own, (Svani) = one's own, (Dharmani) Swasvabhaavjanyaan = hold the dharmas, (Dharanti) = hold.. 18. That is, that attitude of any thing or person created by God which always remains in it, Never be separated from him. Nature . Nature, daily rules. Like, the duty of the eyes to see, the duty of the body to get tired, the duty of the snake to bite, the duty of the wicked to cause sorrow. It is not possible for any substance to exist without the presence of God. Without his protection, no one's behavior can be accomplished.
It is said in Mahabharata's Vanparva (313/128) - Dharma eva hato hanti dharmao rakshati rakshitah. Tasmadharmo na hantavyo ma no dharma hatovadhit.., that is, dead religion destroys the one who kills, and protected religion protects the protector. Therefore, never violate religion, for fear that the killed religion may kill us. Similarly, it is said in Bhagavad Gita – Yada Yada Hi Dharmasya Glanirbhavati Bharat. yada yada hi dharmasya glanirbhavati bharat. abhyutthanamadharmasya tadatmanam srijamyaham..,
that is, (Shri Krishna says to Arjun that) whenever there is a decline of righteousness and rise of unrighteousness, then and there I create myself (take incarnation). One should not behave with others in a manner which is not agreeable to oneself - this is the criterion of religion. Shruyataam Dharma Sarvasvam Shrutva Chaiva Anuvartyatam. Ātmana' pratikulani, paresham na samacharet.., that is, Manu says - listen to what is the everything of religion and after listening follow it! One should not behave with others which one does not like.

Synonyms of Dharma: Eusebeia (εὐσέβεια 'Eusebeia'), Thriskeia (θρησκεία 'thriskeía') and Religion

In the Eastern system, the real Dharma is Sanatan, Hindu is just a small part of Sanatan and the real meaning of Dharma is Sat Aacharana i.e. such conduct by adopting which human welfare can be done. The refined definition of Dharma is the Dharma that has been in existence since the origin of the universe. In the Indian context, Dharma is considered to be the rules of performing one’s duties. Sanatan Dharma, which is also known as Hindu Dharma or Vedic Dharma, is accepted as the oldest religion of the world. The Kandhar Bilingual Rock Inscription (258 BCE) by Emperor Ashoka uses the Sanskrit term 'dharma' and the Greek term 'Eusebeia', meaning the sacred, awe and reverence especially in actions, and in the New Testament of the Christian Bible it means to do things appropriate to the gods.
The concept of Eusebeia in ancient Greek religion and myth has been personified as a symbol of piety, fidelity, duty and filial honour. The word εὐσέβεια 'Eusebeia' as used in the Greek New Testament means 'divinity'. Eusebia (Greek: εὐσέβεια ‘holy’, from εὐσεβής, εὖ euse meaning ‘good’, and σέβας sebas, meaning ‘reverence’, itself derived from ‘sebe’ (meaning holy fear and reverence especially in actions) is a Greek term used abundantly in Greek philosophy as well as in the New Testament, meaning the performance of actions appropriate to the gods. The root seb- (σέβ-) is associated with danger and flight, and thus the sense of reverence originally described fear of the gods, and is distinct from θρησκεία (thraskia), θρησκεία ‘religion’. Eusebeia refers to the real, true, vital, and spiritual relationship with God, while thraskia refers to the spiritual, spiritual, and spiritual relationship with God. Threskia refers to the outward acts of religious rites or ceremonies that can be performed by the body. The English word 'religion' was never used in the sense of true devotion. It always meant outward forms of worship.

Religion - The Modern Concept

The modern concept of religion was formed in the 16th and 17th centuries due to the division of Christendom during the Protestant Reformation and the globalization of the Age of Exploration, contact with many foreign cultures with non-European languages, etc. The use of the term as such began with 18th century texts. While the original languages ​​of the Bible, the Quran, and other ancient sacred texts did not have a single word or concept of religion in today's context, for example, there is no precise equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not clearly distinguish between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities. One of its central concepts is halakha, meaning walk or path sometimes translated as law, which guides many aspects of religious practice and belief and daily life. Even though the beliefs and traditions of Judaism are found throughout the ancient world, ancient Jews saw Jewish identity as an ethnic or national identity and did not require a compulsory belief system or regulated rituals. In the first century CE Josephus used the Greek word ioudaismos (Judaism) as an ethnic term and was not associated with modern abstract concepts of religion or a set of beliefs. The concept of ‘Judaism’ was invented by the Christian church. And in the 19th century Jews began to view their ancestral culture as a religion similar to Christianity. The Greek word Thraskia, used by Greek writers such as Herodotus and Josephus, is found in the New Testament. Thraskeia is sometimes translated as ‘religion’ in today’s translations, however, in the medieval period the term was understood as general ‘worship’. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations, but until the mid-1600s translators expressed din as ‘law’. The Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as Dharma, also means law. Throughout South Asia, the study of law included concepts such as piety and asceticism through formal as well as practical traditions. In medieval Japan there was at first a similar union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but later these became independent sources of authority.
Although traditions, sacred texts and practices have existed throughout time, most cultures did not align with Western notions of religion because they did not separate the everyday from the sacred. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Confucianism and world religions first entered the English language. Native Americans were also thought to have no religion and had no words for religion in their languages. No one identified themselves as Hindu or Buddhist or other similar terms before the 1800s. ‘Hindu’ has historically been used as a geographic, cultural and later religious identifier for the indigenous peoples of the Indian subcontinent. Throughout its long history, Japan had no concept of religion because there was no corresponding Japanese word, nor anything close to its meaning, but when American warships appeared off the coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign freedom of religion treaties, among other demands, Japan had to grapple with the idea.

Indian Context

In ancient India, the word ‘Dharma’ meant spiritual maturity, devotion, compassion, duty to the human community, etc. There was no such thing as Hinduism until a few thousand years ago. The region bordered by the Indian Ocean, including the Indus River and its valley region, up to the northern Pamir plateau, the Himalayan mountain range, was known for thousands of years as Bharatkhand, Bharatvarsh, Aryavart, etc. And in the present Kali-yuga, the Indus remained protected from the fierce robbers and dacoits or infighting among groups like the areas of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea. Hindu was the name of this land, and Sanatan Dharma was its religion. Sanatan Dharma teaches us to discover, not to believe. We had the freedom to discover with our own understanding and intellect and to create our own spiritual process for six to eight thousand years. Here, without any interference or attack from others, we could take our music, our mathematics, our astronomy, our scientific thinking, spiritual thinking, etc. to great heights. This was possible because the Himalayas and the Indian Ocean protected and defended us. We started calling ourselves Hindus because of our deep respect for both these geographical identities, because without these two, we could not have preserved our culture that had been going on for thousands of years.

-Continued: 

Chinese and Greek Civilisation (9) Chinese Civilisation

Soon after the founding of the People's Republic of China, 39 ethnic groups were recognised by the first national census in 1954. This increased to 54 in the second national census in 1964, with the Lhoba group added in 1965. The last change was the addition of the Jino people in 1979, bringing the number of recognised ethnic groups to the current 56. Chinese civilisation is one of the oldest civilisations in the world, which flourished in the valley of the Huangho and Yangtze rivers. It is one of the few civilisations that developed its own independent writing system in ancient times. Printing press, paper making, ammunition, playing cards, silkworm rearing, porcelain pottery, kite flying, writing time and compass are the gifts of this civilisation. Based on archaeological evidence, human settlement in China is about 22.5 lakh years old. The remains from Zhoukoudian Cave are 3 to 5.5 million years old and belong to Peking Man, a Homo erectus who used fire. Remains of modern humans in China have been found in the Liujiang region of Guangxi, including part of a skull that dates to 67,000 years ago. Although the dates of the Liujiang remains are controversial, a skeleton from Minatogawa, Okinawa, Japan dates to 18,250±650 to 16,600±300 years ago, meaning modern humans had arrived in China before that time. The first unified Chinese state was established by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, when the court of the Chinese emperor was established and the Chinese language was forcibly standardized.

There is no concept of religion in Chinese

Historically, there has been no concept or overarching name for 'religion' in the Chinese language. In English, the terms 'popular religion' or 'folk religion' have long been used to describe local religious life. In Chinese academic literature and common usage, 'folk religion' (Chinese: 民間宗教; pinyin mínjiān zōngjiāo) refers to specific organized folk religious sects. Religion in China is diverse, and most Chinese people are either non-religious or practice a combination of Buddhism with a worldview collectively called Chinese folk religion. 'Chinese folk religion' is the ancient and indigenous or local religion of China. This religion involves the worship of nature, the universe, the planets, etc., as well as mountain gods, local village gods, ancestors, ghosts, and the ruling deity of the universe. This religion shows considerable influence of Indian philosophy Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.
From 220 BC to 206 AD, Han dynasty rulers extended the borders of their empire through military expeditions that extended into present-day Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and helped establish the Silk Road across Central Asia, leaving an indelible mark on Chinese culture. After the fall of the Han, China again descended into anarchy and another era of diversification began. Independent Chinese states established diplomatic relations with Japan during this period, bringing Chinese writing skills there. In 580 AD, China was once again unified under the rule of the Sui dynasty, which lasted until 614 AD, when the Sui dynasty collapsed after defeat in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars. Subsequent Tang and Song dynasties continued to unify Chinese culture and technology reached their peak. Song dynasty world was the first government in history to issue paper currency and the first Chinese civil system to establish a standing navy. China's population doubled in the 10th and 11th centuries, due mainly to the spread of rice cultivation to central and southern China and the production of abundant food. The Northern Song dynasty alone had 100 million people living within its borders. The Song dynasty was China's cultural heyday, when art, literature, and social life flourished. From the 7th to the 12th centuries, China became the most cultured country in the world. In 1271, the Mongol chieftain Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty, which overthrew the Song dynasty by 1279. At the same time, the famous European traveller and trader Marcopolo reached China from Venice with his father and uncle and worked in the court of Kublai Khan, the details of which he described in his diary and made public on his return, as a result of which the attention of Western countries turned towards China and many travellers from Italian cities also came to China in connection with their travel to the Near East. Apart from this, Roman Catholics also tried to establish relations with China. A farmer chased away the Mongols in 1368 and established the Ming dynasty which lasted till 1664. The Qing dynasty established by the Manchus ruled China till 1911, which was the last dynasty of China. Many trade difficulties arose due to the inconveniences of transportation while travelling from Western countries to China. All the traders of Europe and Asia used to first cross the Red Sea with their trading ships and then after circumnavigating Egypt, they used to come and land in the Mediterranean Sea. There was another route for trade as well. They used to start their trade journey from the Gulf of Iran. Departing from the Gulf of Iran in connection with the journey, visiting countries like Basra, Baghdad, Mecca etc. they reached Asia Minor, where they had to waste a lot of time and the traders had economic relations with certain countries it could not be sustained, that is why these days the eastern countries Western countries could not establish relations with Pakistan. Not only this, later in the second half of the fifteenth century, their surviving merchants roads were also blocked. 1453 AD. in Muhammad II of the Turkish race captured Constantinople and their trade routes the Mongol ruler Yuan was still alive till then some contact between foreigners and China was definitely maintained but as soon as it died, it seemed like that now their mutual relations will end. But the Ming emperors revived this relation and turned towards the western countries. With the passage of time, the traders of western countries could not forget the economic prosperity of eastern countries (especially China). Marcopolo's diary became a source of inspiration for them. As a result, between the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century, the travel of these travellers started again and their travel also started expanding. At this time, the Spanish, Dutch and Russian races helped in furthering the relations towards the eastern and northern regions of Asia. Getting inspiration from Spain and Portugal, a traveller named Columbus along with his fellow travellers reached Portuguese Macau (China) in 1511 AD and started living permanently in Macau. The Chinese considered these Portuguese as uncivilized and troublesome. At this time the British also came to China. When the rule of the Ming dynasty was ending and the rule of the Manchu emperor was about to begin, the British of Britain arrived in China. Later, he became the most influential person in China and got the credit for opening the doors of China for trade with Western countries.

Reach of Western countries to Eastern countries

The first race that arrived in East Asia during the reign of the Ming dynasty was the Portuguese. In 1498, Vasco da Gama set foot on Indian soil while travelling along the African coast. The Portuguese traveller Vasco da Gama benefitted from this journey as people from the western countries, mainly the Portuguese, came to know the route to reach the eastern countries. Therefore, their migration and expansion started in other countries as well. They reached China at the beginning of the 16th century when they captured Malacca. They reached China in 1514. As soon as they reached China, they got involved in business activities. The traders here started buying luxury items from China and started selling them in the western countries where there was a demand for cosmetics. By now, many western races had arrived in China. The Portuguese had arrived in 1516, the Spanish had arrived in 1575; The Dutch arrived in 1604 AD and the English came in 1637 AD. But till this time the Americans and Russians had not been able to come. They also arrived in China during the Ching rule.
The Portuguese could not please the Chinese with their behavior. Their behavior and habits were not good. It was not only the Portuguese who were bad, other races also had similar habits. When the Spaniards came to America, then they reached there, the lives of the indigenous peoples also became very difficult because of them. Despite the opposition of the Spaniards, they did not leave America and settled there by building colonies. As soon as they settled there, they started interfering in the religion, culture, lifestyle etc. of the American people. Not only this, along with the construction of colonies, they gradually turned towards building colonies. In this series, the Spaniards also reached China. After the Portuguese, the Spanish came to China. The Chinese were already familiar with the kind of activities this race had done in America. Therefore, as soon as this race arrived on Chinese soil with the seeds of building colonies, the Chinese started opposing them. The Ming government also started a strong movement against this race. This was the reason that the Spaniards could not succeed in China like in America. They could neither establish their existence in China nor could they build the desired colonies. Trade relations were also established with the Portuguese. This relationship could not be established with them. Still the Spanish were adamant. Just as they had started living forcefully in America, they tried to live in China in the same way. A group of them stayed in China's famous port Canton and tried to establish trade relations with China. Finally, in the latter half of the eighteenth century (1557 AD) they got success in their work and started living in Macau by building their colony there.
At the same time, many religious missionaries from the West also came to China. These missionaries started preaching religion in China. Initially, the behavior of these missionaries was good, but later the people of China became aware of their selfish policies. At the same time, the British and the Dutch also arrived in China. But here it should be remembered that during the rule of the Ming Dynasty, China established two types of relations with the Western countries - one was trade relations and the other was religious relations. The Western countries used to trade the southern lands with Macau and Canton. The Western traders brought many grain-related plants and tobacco from their countries to China. These people propagated tobacco a lot. Due to them, most of the people of China started consuming tobacco. Similarly, their religious relations with China were also established. Missionaries from Western countries used to preach religion in the inner areas of China. After the rule of the Mongols, the Christians in China started coming to an end and their influence started decreasing. But during the Ming Dynasty, the Christian population in China started declining the last years of the rule, Roman Catholics revived these Christians and their missionaries. At the same time, people from many religious sects like Franciscan, Augustinian, Jesuit, Dominican etc. reached China from Britain, France etc. In the early years of the sixteenth century, the dominance of the Jesuit sect started getting established in China. The popular propagator of this sect was Francis Xavier who tirelessly tried to make this sect popular in South and East Asia. This preacher also propagated this sect in China. In fact, it was only because of Xavier that this sect could come alive in China. Xavier had not yet achieved complete success in his work when he passed away in 1556 AD. After his death, Mathar Ricci took the responsibility of his work on his shoulders. Ricci was a resident of Italy. He put in all his efforts to increase the popularity of the Jesuit sect. Ricci had a multifaceted talent. He was a great scholar of astrology and mathematics. Historians estimate that at present there was no scholar of astrology and mathematics in China who could match Ricci. Due to his talent, he also studied Chinese literature. This Chinese literature was a completely new subject for Ricci, yet due to his perseverance and talent he gained a lot of respect among Chinese litterateurs. Apart from studying his own religion, he also studied Confucianism and Christianity in great depth and tried to keep the similarities and differences of both the religions as a scholar. He made his residence in the capital of China, Beijing. At the same time, Spaniards also came to China from Philippines. 
In 1644, the rule of Ming dynasty ended. In the north, conquerors called Manchus defeated Ming. Manchus were residents of Manchuria. In the latter half of the sixteenth century and the early years of the seventeenth century, they made themselves powerful and snatched Mukden from Ming, which was also their capital. They also made Mukden their capital. The Mongols living in China also willingly or unwillingly accepted the rule of Manchus. Manchus tried to extend their state boundary to the southern wall of China. At the same time, when a feeling of discontent against Ming arose in China, the Manchus took advantage of the opportunity and took control of Peking and from then on they started ruling China. Kangsi (1661-1728 AD) and Chin Lung (1736-1796 AD) were the most glorious kings of this dynasty. Manchus ruled China for a long time.

To Continue....

6) Civilization of Armenians

Armenian civilization, which includes some parts of present-day Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan and the territory of present-day Armenia, is one of the ancient civilizations. The name of Armenia in Armenian language is Hayastan which means the land of Hayk. Hayk was the name of Noah's great-great grandson. According to Islamic, Christian and Jewish beliefs, the boat of Noah (Nuh in Arabic, like the Hindu Matsya avatar) who saved people from the flood of the mythical great deluge, stopped near the hills of Yerawan. People of Armenian origin consider themselves to be the descendants of Hayk, the great-grandson of Noah (revered in Islam, Christianity and Jews). In the Bronze Age, it was the land of empires like Hittites and Mitanni. In the Iron Age, the Urartu Empire of Aram unified all the powers and this region was named Armenia after it. Some Christians believe that Noah (Nuh in Islam) and his family settled here. People of the Semitic race were the residents of this civilization. The founders of the Armenian script also belonged to this caste. The Armenian script Aramaic was once used (300 BC) from India to the Mediterranean Sea. The king of Armenia had accepted Christianity in the fourth century itself. Thus, the state of Armenia is the first state to adopt Christianity. The Armenian Apostolic Church is the largest religion in the country. Being located between the Eastern Roman Empire and both Persia and Arabian regions, it has been a land of foreign influence and war since the Middle Ages where many early wars of Islam and Christianity were fought. Apart from this, there is a small community of Catholic Christians, Muslims and other sects here. According to Zenob Glak (one of the first disciples of Armenia's Patron Saint Gregory the Illuminator), at least 7 Hindu cities were established in Armenia around 349 BC the institution of nakharar was established by Hindu kings even earlier. Zenob writes that the colony was founded by two Indian princes of Ujjain who took refuge in Armenia. They and their descendants worshipped Lord Ganesha and ruled a large part of Armenia. The rule of these Hindu kings lasted in Armenia and Hindu cities flourished there until 301 AD, when Christianity was introduced there. The Saint Karapet monastery ruins (now in Turkey) were formerly a Hindu temple on the site of the ruins. Literary evidence points to the existence of Indian settlements in Armenia as early as 149 BC. That is, the Armenians were also descendants of Sanatani ancestors before they became Christians and later Muslims.

7) Babylonian Civilization

Babylonia was a very ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural region developed in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria and Iran) and in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It emerged as an Akkadian-populated but Amorite-ruled state around 1894 BC. The nomads of the Arabian desert took over the Sumerian kingdom and made the city of Babylon their capital. That is why this civilization was called the civilization of Babylonia. Hammurabi was the ruler of Babylon from 1792 BC to 1750 BC. The creators of the civilization of Babylonia were Semitic the Babylonians were people of the Semitic race, who lived like nomads in the regions around Sumeria. Attracted by the fertile land of Mesopotamia, they gradually started settling in this valley. In 2750 BC, the first tribe of this race fought with the residents of Sumeria and acquired some territories and established the kingdom of Akkad. Gradually this tribe progressed and around 2500 BC, the Akkadian 'ruler' 'Sargon the Great' established his authority over the whole of Mesopotamia. This ruler laid the foundation of the city of Babylon or Babylon. This civilization was also called the civilization of Babylonia after the name of this city. After two hundred years, the Akkadian Empire began to decline and other tribes of the Semitic race began to come to Mesopotamia. Around 2300 BC, the 'Elomite' tribe took over some cities in the south. After this, in 2200 BC, the Amorite tribe invaded Mesopotamia and defeated the Akkadian and Elomite tribes and established their authority over a large part of Mesopotamia. The most powerful ruler of this tribe was Hammurabi who ruled Mesopotamia from 1792 to 1750 BC. This ruler was a great conqueror, great administrator, politician and law maker. During his rule, there was a great development in architecture and revolutionary reforms took place in the field of law. After the death of Hammurabi, from 1570 BC to 1154 BC, the Hittites tribe from the west and the Kassites tribe from the east invaded and destroyed the empire of Babylonia. Later, Babylonia came under the control of Assyria and Egypt. After this, from 1121 BC to 562 BC, King Nebuchadrezzar-1 to King Nebuchadrezzar-II tried to re-establish the ancient glory of Babylonia and built hanging gardens. After the death of this ruler, the Iranians took over Babylonia. From 3000 BC to the reign of Hammurabi, the main cultural and religious center of southern Mesopotamia was the ancient city of Nippur, where the god Enlil was supreme. Hammurabi transferred this dominance to Babylon, making Marduk supreme in the pantheon of southern Mesopotamia was made (the god Ashur or Ishtar, northern Mesopotamia Assyria remained the dominant deity for a long time). Babylon the city became known as a 'sacred city' where any legitimate ruler of southern Mesopotamia was crowned, and for these religious reasons the city was also revered by the Assyrians. The Hittites, while plundering Babylon, removed the statues of the gods Marduk and his wife Zarpanitu from the Esagil temple and took them to their kingdom. Qaraindash built a bas-relief temple in Uruk and Kurigalzu (1415-1390 BC) built a new capital in his name, Dur-Kurigalzu, transferring administrative rule from Babylon. Both these kings struggled unsuccessfully against the Sealand dynasty. Qaraindash also strengthened diplomatic relations with the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-nisheshu and the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III and guarded Babylon's borders with Elam. Alexander conquered Babylon for the Greeks in 333 BC and died in 323 BC. Babylonia and Assyria then became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire. In 150 BC the Parthian king Mithridates conquered and incorporated the region into the Parthian Empire and the region became a battleground between the Greeks and the Parthians. The Babylonian system of mathematics was the sexagesimal or base 60 numeral system. From this we get the modern-day use of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60×6) degrees in a circle. The Babylonians were able to make great advances in mathematics for two reasons. First, the number 60 has many divisors (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30), making calculations easier. Additionally, unlike the Egyptians and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where the digits written in the left column represented larger values (734-7×100+3×10+4×1, similar to our base-ten system). The Babylonians' mathematical achievements included determining the square root of two accurately to seven places (YBC 7289). They also demonstrated knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem before Pythagoras.

8) Indus Valley Civilization

This civilization spread up to 'Manda' (Jammu Kashmir) in the north, 'Daimabad' (Maharashtra) in the south, 'Alamgirpur' (Uttar Pradesh) in the east and 'Sutkagendor' (Pakistan) in the west and was also spread in Saurashtra, Rajasthan, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh etc. Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BC), World one of the ancient civilizations of the 1st century AD, spread across the Indus River and ancient Sarasvati River region in South Asia, also known as the Harappan Civilization. Its initial development took place between 7500-3300 BC, on the banks of Indus and Ghaggar/Hakra (ancient Saraswati river), whose main centers were Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibanga, Lothal, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi. Bhirdana is considered to be the oldest city of Indus Valley Civilization discovered till date, which was settled between approximately 7500 to 6500 BC. Due to the evidence of this civilization found in the excavations of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, which fall in the region of Indus and its tributaries, scholars named it Indus Valley Civilization, but later the remains of this civilization were also found in Ropar, Lothal, Kalibanga, Banavali, Rangpur etc., which were outside the region of Indus and its tributaries. Punjab and Sindh became the center, the area of this civilization was many times bigger and vaster than the area of all the ancient civilizations of the world, gradually it expanded towards south and east. Thus, Harappan culture included not only Punjab, Sindh and Baluchistan but also the border areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, i.e. from the banks of Chenab river in Manda in the north to Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the south and from Sutkagendor of Makran coast of Baluchistan in the west, Sindh province of Pakistan to Hiranya in Alamgirpur, Meerut and Kurukshetra in the north-east. In the initial expansion, the entire area was triangular (from Manda of Jammu in the north to Bhogtrar of Gujarat in the south and from Sutkagendor of Afghanistan in the west to Meerut of Uttar Pradesh in the east) and the area was 20,00,000 square kilometres, i.e. it was bigger than modern or ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Till now, a total of 1500 sites of this culture have been discovered in the Indian subcontinent. Some of these are of the initial stage, some of the mature stage and some of the later stage. A large number of female statues made of baked clay have been found in Harappa. One statue shows a plant emerging from a woman's womb. Scholars believe that this is the statue of the Earth Goddess and it must have been closely related to the birth and growth of plants. Therefore, it seems that the people here considered the earth to be the goddess of fertility and worshipped it in the same way (the way the Egyptians worshiped Isis, the goddess of the Nile River). But it is difficult to say whether the society here was also matriarchal like ancient Egypt or not. Some Vedic texts praise Mother Earth, a well has been found in the fort of Dholavira, it has stairs going downwards and there was a window in it where there is evidence of lighting a lamp. The water of Saraswati river used to come in that well, so perhaps the people of Indus Valley used to worship Saraswati through that well. A seal is found in the cities of Indus Valley Civilization which has a picture of a yogi with 3 or 4 faces, many scholars believe that this yogi is Shiva. In Mewar which was once in the boundary of Indus Valley Civilization, even today Eklingnath ji, the incarnation of Shiva with 4 faces, is worshipped. The people of Indus Valley Civilization used to cremate their dead bodies, the population of cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa was around 50 thousand but still only around 100 graves have been found from there which indicates that they used to cremate dead bodies. Havan kunds have been found at places like Lothal, Kalibanga etc. which is proof of them being Vedic. Pictures of Swastika have also been found here. Some scholars believe that Hinduism was the original religion of Dravidians and Shiva was the god of Dravidians who was adopted by the Aryans. Some Jain and Buddhist scholars also believe that the Indus Valley Civilization belonged to Jain or Buddhist religion. Archaeologists have found remains of many temples in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia but no temple has been found in the Indus Valley till date. Historians believe that the people of the Indus Valley used to worship in their homes, in the fields or on the river banks. Just as Hindus today go to bathe in the Ganges, the Indus people used to purify themselves by bathing here. Like ancient Mesopotamia, the people here also invented the art of writing. The first sample of the Harappan script was found in 1853 AD and the entire script came to light in 1923 but it has not been read till date. Due to the knowledge of the script, accounting of personal property became easy. They needed measurement and weighing for trade and they also used it. Many items like weights have been found. They show that 16 or its multiples (like 16, 32, 48, 64, 160, 320, 640, 1280 etc.) were used in weighing. The interesting thing is that till modern times, 1 rupee in India was equal to 16 annas. There were 4 paavs in 1 kg and 4 kanwans in every paav, that is, a total of 16 kanwans in a kg. According to most scholars, this civilization ended due to the outbreak of floods. Since the Indus Valley civilization developed along the banks of rivers, floods were natural, so this argument is universally accepted. But some scholars believe that such a huge civilization cannot end due to floods alone. Therefore, different scholars support different reasons other than floods, such as fire, epidemic, external invasion.
Etcetera.   

   Heredity under genetics, the similarities and differences between organisms and their ancestors or descendants, the reasons for their origin and the possibilities of evolution are studied due to heredity. Every living being is basically made up of cells. Some chromosomes are found in these cells. Their number is fixed in each species. Inside these chromosomes there are some DNA like beads of a necklace. Chemical units of DNA are found which are called genes. These genes and chromosomes are responsible for the appearance, functioning and acquisition of traits or qualities. All living beings, whether animals or plants, are exact replicas of their ancestors. In scientific language it is called the principle of 'like begets like'. Under genetics, certain factors are specially studied:-
The first factor is heredity. The heredity of an organism is the chemical information received from the germ cells of its ancestors or parents. For example, how a creature will develop will be determined by its heredity.
The second factor is the difference that we find or can find between a creature and its offspring. Almost all organisms display characteristics of their parents or sometimes grandparents or the generations before them. It is also possible that some of its symptoms are completely new. There are many reasons for such changes or differences.
The development of organisms also depends on the circumstances and their environment. The environments of animals are extremely complex; Under this, all the substances and forces of the living being are included and other living beings (Organism), which keep influencing their lives.
In the modern context, Wilhelm Johannsen, in 1911, established the distinction between external characteristics (phenotype) and hereditary characteristics (genotype) of organisms. The external characteristics of organisms keep changing along with their development, such as substantial physical differences are visible in the embryo stage, infancy, youth and old age of the organisms. On the contrary, their ancestral traits or characteristics are stable and unchanging. The interaction of ancestral traits and environment of any organism results in its growth and development. Therefore, ancestral traits determine the 'norms and reactions' of organisms, i.e. the way they respond to the environment. These types of reactions create the external characteristics (phenotype) of organisms.
Genetic elements are used in agricultural science for crop size, production, disease prevention and breed improvement of pet animals etc. With the help of genetic elements, study of evolution, embryology and other related sciences is facilitated. This science has resolved many misconceptions related to ancestral traits and diseases. This science has thrown light on many problems of the origin of twin children and eugenics. Similarly, human society has benefited from many important achievements of population genetics. T. H. Morgan (1886-1945) and his colleagues showed that certain genes, whose inheritance crossing over became known through experiments and is present in certain chromosomes, visible only through microscopes. He also explained that these genes are arranged in a fixed sequence within the chromosomes, due to which it is possible to make their genetic map. These people made several maps of the genes of the honey fly, Drosophila. Professor Muller guided new scientific research through groundbreaking experiments in the field of mutation. Amazing improvements have been made in domesticated animals and agricultural breeds through various methods of artificial or induced mutation, all of which have proved extremely beneficial for human welfare.

Chromosome

Two substances are especially included in the structure of chromosome - (1) Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. (D.N.A.), and (2) a type of protein called histone. It is a hereditary matter. D.N.A. (D. N.A.) The structure of the molecule includes four organic acids - two purines, two pyrimidines, one sugar - deoxyribose and phosphoric acid. Purine contains Adenine and Guanine and Pyrimidine contains Thymine and Cytosine. D.N.A. A molecule of DNA (D.N.A.) consists of two strands, which are spirally coiled around each other. Every DNA (D.N.A.) The formula consists of four organic bases - thymine, cytosine, adenine and guanine, one after the other, and they are connected to each other in a special way. These four bases and their associated sugar and phosphoric acid molecules form a single tetranucleotide and several thousand tetranucleotides form a DNA. A. (D.N.A.) molecule is formed.
DNA of different creatures the reason for the variation is the difference in the sequence of Samakshas. D.N.A. And another such nucleic acid R. N. A. (R.N.A.) due to the presence of organic compounds absorb most of the ultraviolet in the region of 2,600 angstrom or 0.0002 mm. On this basis, DNA A cytological quantitative approach is performed. two among creatures special types of centrioles are found. One is found in the nuclei of the larval salivary gland in some Diptera, Insecta. These chromosomes are several hundred times longer and wider than the normal chromosomes of the same species. For this reason they are called giant chromosomes. Their structure appears somewhat different from normal mitosis and meiosis centrosomes. Here, instead of one chromosome, there is a transverse row of such granules which have more ability to be stained. All the granules of several such transverse rows from one end of the chromosome to the other are identical and the granules of other rows have characteristics and variations.
Due to the longer length of these chromosomes, it is believed that they undergo complete despiralisation and perhaps some elongation of the protein also occurs. Due to being wider, one chromosome synthesizes another nucleus - chromosome similar to itself. In normal condition, during mitosis, these two threads get separated from each other, but this does not happen in megachromosome. Both the threads remain connected to each other. The number of megachromosomes is half the number of normal chromosomes, because each thread gets paired with another thread similar to itself. This phenomenon is called somatic pairing.
Another strange type of chromosome is found in animals. This is called lampbrush chromosome. These chromosomes are found in the nuclei of eggs of such animals which have high amount of yolk, such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds etc. Chromosomes are made up of two paired pairs, similar to simple diplotene-diakinesis chromosomes. Both the coupled threads are connected to each other at some places and remain far away from each other at the remaining places. These joints are considered kiasma. On each thread, which is called Chromonema, there are granules of different sizes at different places which are called Chromomeres. A pair or more lateral loops are attached to each chromomere. The side loop is also made up of threads similar to chromonema, but ribonucleo-protein granules gather around it due to which these threads appear thick. Chromomeres are also derived from chromonema. Nuclei are produced on particular chromosomes.
Each cell of most animals has two integral sets of chromosomes. mature sex cells (mature sex-cells) one kulak remains. Such animals and cells are called diploid, but some animals, especially plants, have more than two sets of chromosomes and are called polyploid. If the centromere of a diploid animal gets doubled, due to which there are four alleles in its cells, like (A1 K1 K1; B1 B1 B1 B1, C1 C1 C1 C1 etc.) then such an animal is autopolyploid or (autotetraploid). They say. If the chromosomes of a diploid hybrid are doubled, then such an animal is called allopolyploid. If a diploid animal, whose chromosomes are A1 B1 B1 C1 C1 etc., is hybridized with another animal whose chromosomes are A2 K2 B2 B2 C2 G2 etc., then the chromosomes of its offspring will be A1 K2 B1 B2 C1 C2 etc. A1 K2 B1 B2 etc. will be different from each other and generally there will be no pairing. If the chromosomes of this creature are doubled, then their cells will have K1 K1 K2 K2; b1 b1b2 b2; The chromosomes will be C1 C1 C2 C2, etc. This will be called allopolyploid (allotetraploid). Polyploids may also have more than four alleles. It is clear that in autopolyploids, quadrivalents will be produced at the zygotene stage, because four chromosomes of each type are present and the pairing of four chromosomes forms a quadrivalent. At the time of cell division, each pole will not receive an equal number of chromosomes. It often happens that due to breakage of a quadruvalent, three threads reach one pole and only one thread reaches the opposite pole. The daughter cells formed at the end of cell division will either have more or less number of chromosomes and the result of such imbalance is that the cell dies. For this reason autotetraploids are very less fertile. Autotroploid plants are much larger than ordinary diploid plants and their seeds are also much larger, due to which even if fertility is low, they can prove to be more beneficial for the household. By exposure to cold, or by the influence of certain alkaloids, plants can be made autopolyploid.
In allotetraploid the condition is opposite. If the formulas of both primitive parents are completely different from each other, then the allopolyploid is functionally diploid and will be completely fertile. For example, if in any hybrid the formula is completely different from A1 K2, B1 B2, C1 C2, then such hybrid will be sterile, but its chromosomes will be this situation will change due to doubling of. Such cells will have the formulas Ka K1 K2 K2, B1 B1 B2 B2, C1 C1 C2 C2 etc. and the branches having such cells will bear flowers, because in such cells the meiotic division will be successful, K1 will be paired with K1, B1 B1 From etc. 

In various plants and animals number of chromosomes 

Datura stramonium has 12 pairs of chromosomes in diploid state and bivalents are formed during meiosis. Its autopolyploid has 12 tetrad (48) chromosomes and 12 tetrads are formed at the time of meiosis. Similarly, the diploid plant Primula sinensis has 12 pairs of chromosomes and the autotetraploid has 48 pairs. And during meiosis, 9 to 11 quadrivalents and 2 to 6 divalents are formed in it. The diploid of Solanum Lycopersicon has 12 pairs of chromosomes and its autotetraploid has 12 tetraploid (48) chromosomes. These are all plants.
Crepis rubra and Crepis foctida have 5 pairs of chromosomes. Their formulas do not differ much from each other and in the hybrid generated from their hybridization, 5 divalents are formed during meiosis. Its allopolyploid has 20 centrosomes and 0 to 5 tetravalents are formed in meiosis. and 0 to 10 divalent. Obviously the allotetraploid will not be very fertile. Primula floribunda and Primula resticillata both have 9 pairs of chromosomes, which are almost similar to each other. The hybrid that is formed by their hybridization is called Prithuja kivensis. It also has 9 pairs of chromosomes. During meiosis the pairing process is successful and 9 divalents are formed. The allopolyploid formed due to doubling of alleles has 9 tetravalent (36) alleles and in such a plant 12 to 18 divalents are formed and 0 to 3 tetravalents. It is clear that the number of tetravalents is very less and sometimes even one. Tetravalent is not formed. Radish (Raphanus) and Karamkalla (Brassica) each have 9 pairs of chromosomes, which are completely different from each other. The hybrid Raphanus Brassica (Raphanus-Brassica) resulting from their hybridization also has 9 pairs of chromosomes; But in meiosis one also does not become divalent, because the process of pairing is not successful and all the formulas remain unpaired, thereby forming 12 monovalents. Its allotetraploid resulting from diploidy has 12 pairs of threads and in meiosis, 12 valences are formed, not even one tetravalent. The result is that the Raphanus-Brassica allatetraploid is very fertile, although the Raphanus-Brassica diploid is sterile. Polyploidy is rarely found in animals but it is often found in parthenogenetic animals. Many new species in plants may have arisen due to polyploidy. This is evidenced by the fact that almost half of the species of Angiosperms are such that the number of chromosomes in mature gametes is multiple of the number of gametic chromosomes of the respective species. There are many species of wheat. The basic gamete centrosome number of these species is 7. The number of chromosomes found in wheat varieties is multiples of 7, up to 14, 21, 42 and 49. Similarly, the number of chromosomes in different varieties of tobacco is 12 or multiples of 12 is 24. By use in plants, many Polyploids have been created, consisting of two clades of unitary chromosomes. They are fertile. 
There is no doubt that the cytoplasm works under the control of the nucleus. Many types of cell groups are engaged in carrying out other functions. For example, exocrine cells of the pancreas produce special digestive enzymes. The cells of the anal canal extract urea from the blood and the liver cells convert glucose into glycogen and store it. It is clear that all the genes of any living being are normally present in every cell. Therefore, in the production of different types of proteins (of which they are made) in different types of cells, some suitable genes must have been active and the rest must have become inactive and the same thing must be true regarding their activation.

Study of human genetics

Many scientists are of the opinion that genetic study of humans is not an easy task. The reason given for this is that it takes about 10 months for a human child to be born and at least 20 years for it to become a full adult. Therefore, genetic study of humans is complicated because it takes 20, 22 years to study just one or two generations. Besides this, humans generally have only one child at a time, this also creates difficulty in studies. Despite these difficulties, the human body study of external structure, diseases, their symptoms and causes etc. is easy. In the modern context, the first study of biochemical genetics of humans was done by London physician Archibald Garrod (1857-1936), but no detailed studies were done on this subject before 1940. About 60 traits have been discovered in humans in relation to genes.
The study of genetics has the same importance in biology as atomic theories have in physics. The earliest forms of genetic study of humans included polygamy (having extra fingers), hemophilia, and color blindness. For example, in 1750, Maupertuis in Berlin described polymorphism on the basis of Mendel's laws. Similarly, Otto (1803), Hay (1813) and Buells (1815) shed light on the genetic causes of sex-linked hemophilia in three different families in New England. In 1876, Harner, a Swiss physician, described color blindness. In 1958, George Beadle received the Nobel Prize for his significant contribution to the field of biochemical genetics in the field of 'Physics and Medicine'. In 1959, Jerome Lejeune presented a scholarly description of Mongolian idiocy. In 1956, J.H. Xiao, Albert Lewan, Charles Ford and John Hamerton stated the number of human chromosomes to be 46; Earlier people were of the opinion that this number was 48.

Garbha Upanishad

In the Garbha Upanishad it is stated that: Ripanchatmakam panchasu vartamanam shadashrayam shadguna yogayukta. That seven elements, the Trimala, the Dviyoni, and the fourfold diet make up the body. Why is it that the earth, fire, air and sky are composed of five elements? In this five-fold body, what is the earth, what is the water, what is the light, what is the air, what is the sky? There whatever is hard is called the earth whatever is liquid whatever is called water whatever is hot whatever is called light whatever is circulating is called air whatever is dry is called sky There, in holding the earth, in holding water, in lumping, in illuminating, in moving air, in giving space to the sky, in the separate ear, in the perception of sound, in the skin, in touch, in the eyes, in the form of the tongue, in the taste, in the nose, Why does one find sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent and alkaline tastes in the sixfold shelter? The six Jarsas, the Gandharvas, the Mapanchas, the Dhaivatas and the Nisadas. There are seven kinds of sounds known as desirable and undesirable: white, red, black, smoky, yellow, black and white. That is, the body is five-fold, present in the five, having six shelters, possessing the sum of six qualities, made of seven metals, contaminated by three impurities, consist of two vaginas, and is nourished by four types of food. How is Panchatak? The body is composed of earth, water, light, air and sky (because of these) the body is Panchakta. What is earth in this body? What is water? What is fast? What is air? And what is the sky? The hardest element in this body is earth. Whatever is liquid is water; What is hot is fast; That which communicates is air; The hole is called sky. In these, the earth holds, collects water, emits light, air keeps the elements in place, and the sky provides space. Apart from this, the Shrota is engaged in receiving the word, touching the skin, taking the form of the eyes, the tongue is engaged in tasting the juice, the nostrils in smelling, enjoying the present and the feet are engaged in the work of excretion. The living being acquires knowledge through the intellect, makes resolutions through the mind and speaks through the sense of speech. How is the body with six shelters? That is because it tastes six tastes: sweet, acid, salt, bitter, bitter and astringent. Shadaj, Rishabh, Gandhar, Madhyam, Pancham, Dhaivat and Nishad, these seven notes and the words Ishta, Anishta and Pranidhanakaar (Pranavadi) together form ten types of words (swaras). Shukla, Rakta, Krishna, Dhumra, Peeta, Kapil and Pandur are the seven forms (colours) ll 1 ll
Saptadhatumiti Kasmata Yada Devdattasya Dravyadivishya Jayante l Parasparam Saumyaguntvat Shad Vadho Raso Rasachhonitam Shonitanmansam Mansanmedo medasah Sannanovsthinyantashbhyo majja majagyah Shukram Shukrashonnatasanyogadavartate Garbho Hridi  Vyavastham Nayati . Hridyeantragnih Agnisthanepittam Pittasthane Vayuh Vayusthane Hridyam Prajapatyatkramat ll2ll
That is, how are they made of seven metals? When a person named Devadatta is attached to enjoyable objects such as matter, then because of their mutual compatibility, six substances are obtained from which rasa is formed. From juice comes blood, from blood comes flesh, from flesh comes fat, from fat comes muscle, from muscle comes bone, from bone comes marrow, and from marrow comes sperm. The womb is formed by the combination of male sperm and female blood. All these metals reside in the heart, the inner fire is produced in the heart, bile in the place of fire, air in the place of bile and the heart is formed from air in the order of creation. ll 2 ll-
Ritukale Samprayogadekratroshitam Kalolam Bhavati Saptaratroshitam Buddhudam Bhavati Ardhamasabhyantarena Pido Bhavati Masabhyanyarena Kathino Bhavati Masadyena Shirah Sampadyate Masyrayena Padpravesho Bhavati . Atha Chaturthe Mase Jatharkati Pradesho Bhavati. Panch Me Mase Prishthavansho Bhavati. Shathe Mase Mukhnasikakshitrotrani Bhavanti. Saptme Mase Jeeven Sanyukto Bhavti. Ashtame Mase Sarvasampurno Bhavati . Pitu Retoariktitat Purusho Bhavati. Matuh Retoariktitatstriyo Bhavanturbhayorbeejtulyatannapunsako Bhavati. Vyakulit Manasoandhah Khanjah Kubja  Vamana Bhavanti. Anyonvayuparipiditah Shukradwaidhyaddivadha Tanuh Syattato Yugmah Prajayante. Panchatmakah Samarthah Panchatmaktejaseddharashascha Samayaggyanata Dhyanat Aksharmokaram Chintayati. Tadetdekaksharam Gyatvashtau Prakritah Shodash Vikarah Sharire Tasyaive Dehinam. Atha Matraashitpitanadisutragatena Prana Aapyayate . Atha Navame Masi Sarvalakshana Sampurno Bhavati Purvajatih Smarat Kritkritam Cha Karma Vibhati Shubhashubham Cha Karma Vindati II 3 II
They are the ones, in the seventh month he is united with the living entity. In the eighth month, he becomes complete. In addition to the semen of the father, the male is produced. Besides the mother’s to, the female is equal to the seed of both, and the male is not male. They are blind, scratchy, hunchbacked and dwarfed by their confused minds. The sperm, pressed by the air against each other, becomes two bodies, and then twins are born. The five-fold, capable, and five-fold effulgence and taste contemplate the imperishable Omkara through perfect knowledge and meditation. Knowing that this one syllable is the eight natures and sixteen transformations in the body of the same embodied beings Then the matter is infused with the life-force through the thread of the cold and yellow veins. Then in the ninth month he becomes full of all attributes remembering his ancestors he appears to have performed his duties and attains to good and evil deeds. That is, if conceived properly during the menstrual period, the combination of sperm and blood forms a cup in one night. Bubbles form in seven nights. On one side its lump (gross shape) is formed. He solidifies in a month. In two months it is equipped with a head, in three months the legs are formed, and in the fourth month the gulf (ankle), abdomen and waist region are formed. In the fifth month, the spine is ready. In the sixth month, the mouth, nose, eyes, and ears are formed. in the seventh month consists of the organism. in the eighth month is complete with all symptoms. The excess of father's sperm produces sons, the excess of mother's blood produces daughters and the equality of both sperm and blood produces eunuch children. Blind, hunchbacked, lame and dwarf children are born by having intercourse with an anxious mind. By the collision of the mutual air, the sperm splits into two parts and becomes subtle, producing twins. When the body of the five elements is capable and healthy, the consciousness has the five sense intelligences; It gives knowledge of smell, taste, etc. He meditates on the destructive letter Om Kara, then the body of the same conscious knowing this monosyllable has eight natures (nature, mahat-tatva, ego and five tanmatras) and sixteen disorders (five senses, five senses of action, five gross and mind). . Later, the food and drink of the mother are delivered through the threads of the veins and satisfy the prana of the unborn child. Then in the ninth month he becomes full of all the characteristics such as the senses. Then he remembers the previous birth. His good and bad deeds also come before him. ll 3 ll
Nanayonisahtrqni Drishtva Chaiva Tato Maya. Ahar Vividha Bhuktah Pitashcha Vivida Stanah ll Jatasyaiva Mritaisyava Janma Chaiva Punah Punah. Aho Dukhodadhau Magnah Na Pashyami Pratikriyam . Yanmaya Parijanasyarthe Kritam Karma Shubhashubham . Aekaki Ten Dahyami Gataste Phal Bhoginah . Yadi Yonyam Pramunchami Sankhyam Yogam Samashraye . Ashubha Kshaya Kartaram Phalmukti Pradayakam. Yadi Yonyam Panchami Tam Prapadye Maheshwaram . Ashubha Kshaya Kartaram Phalmukti Prafayakam . Yadi Yonyam Pramuchami Tam Prapadye Bhagwantam Narayanam Devam . Ashubha Kshaya Kartaram Phal Mukti Ptadayakam . Yadj Yonyam Ptamuchchami Dhyaye Brahma Sanatanam . Atha Jantuh Srriyonishtam Yonidwaro Samprapto Yantrenapidyamano Mahta Dukhen Jatmatrastu Vaishnavena Vayuna Sansprishyate Tada Na Smarti Janma Maranam Na Cha Karma Shubhashubham ll 4 ll
That is, then the being starts thinking - I have seen thousands of previous births, I have eaten various kinds of food in them, I have drunk the breasts of various kinds of vaginas. I was born again and again, I died. I am burning here alone today thinking of the good and bad deeds I have done for my family. I am lying here in the sea of sorrow and see no remedy. If I am released from this womb - I will take refuge at the feet of Maheshwara who destroys evil deeds and bestows the fruit of liberation. If I am freed from the wombs, I will take refuge in Lord Narayana, who destroys evil deeds and bestows the fruit of liberation. If I am freed from the vaginas, I will practice Sankhya and Yoga, which destroy evil deeds and bestow the fruit of liberation. If I am released from the vagina this time, I will meditate on Brahman, after which he reaches the vaginal door and is pressed into the vaginal form device and takes birth with great difficulty. As soon as he comes out, by the touch of Vaishnava air (Maya) he forgets his past births and deaths and even good and evil deeds are removed from his sight. 4. -
Sharirmiti Kasmat Sakshadgnyohyatrashriyante-gyanagnirdharshanagnih Koshthagniriti. Tatra Koshthagnirnamashitpeetlehyachoshyam Pachatit .Darshnagni Rupadinam Darshanam Karoti . Gyanagnih Shubhashubham Cha Karma Vindati . Tatra Trini Sthanani Bhavanti Hridaye Dakshinagnirudare Garhyapatyam Mukhmahvaniyamatma Yajmano Buddhimm Patnim Nidhaya Mano Brahma Lobhadayah Pashvo Dhritirdiksha Shantoshashcha Buddhindriyani Yagyapatrani Karmendrani Havishim Shirah Kapalam Kesha Darbha Mukhamantravedih Chatuahkapalam Shirah Shodasha Parshavadantoshthapatalani Sapttotaram Marmashatam Sashitikam Sandhishatam Sanvakam Snayushatam Sapta Shirashatani Panch Majjashatani Asthini Cha Ha Vai Trini Shatani Shashtishchardhachatastro Romani Kotyo Hridyam Palanyashtau Dwadash Palani Jihva Pittaprastham Kafasyadhakam Shuklam Kudvam Medah Prasthau Dwavaniyatam Mutrapurishmaharparimanat l Paipladam Mokshashastram Parisamaptam Paipladam Mokshashastram Parisamaptimiti ll 5 ll
Why is it that the fire of knowledge, the fire of vision, the fire of cells and the fire of cells are directly situated here? The fire of the stomach is called the cooking of the eaten yellow oil and the dry food. The fire of sight gives sight to forms and other things. The fire of knowledge finds good and evil actions. There are three places in the heart, the right fire, the abdomen, the household, the mouth, the sacrificial soul, the sacrificer, the intellect, the wife, the mind, Brahma, greed and other animals, patience, initiation, satisfaction, intelligence, sacrificial vessels, senses of action One hundred and eighty-six joints, one hundred muscles, seven hundred heads, five hundred marrows, and three hundred sixty-four and a half hairs The heart is eight palms and the tongue is twelve palms the bile ducts are covered with phlegm, the white pot is covered with fat, and the urine urine is divided into two parts, depending on the amount of food. Paippalada is the complete scripture of liberation Paippalada is the complete scripture of liberation. That is, how is the body called 'body'? Because the fire in the form of the fire of knowledge, the fire of vision and the fire of the stomach takes refuge in it. Among these, the stomach is the one that digests what is eaten, drunk, licked, and sucked. The fire of vision is that which shows the forms; The fire of knowledge brings to light good and evil deeds. There are three places in the body of fire: the offering remains in the mouth of the fire. The Garhapatya fire resides in the abdomen and the Dakshinagni resides in the heart. The soul is the priest, the mind is Brahma, greed and other animals are the initiations, the head is the skull, the hair is the darbha, the mouth is the antarvedika, the head is the four skulls, the rows of teeth are the sixteen skulls There are joints, one hundred and nine muscles, seven hundred veins, five hundred marrows, three hundred and sixty bones, four and a half crore hairs, eight palms (tolas) are hearts, twelve palms (twelve tolas) are tongues, prasthamatra ( one seer) is bile, aadhakamatra ( two and a half seers) phlegm, kudavamatra ( a foot full ) sperm and two prasthas (two seers) are fat; In addition, the amount of stool and urine is irregular with the amount of food in the body. This is the Mokshashastra revealed by the sage Pippalad, Pappalad is the Mokshashastra. ll 5 ll

Reafirmation of Sanatan Knowledge

It is well known that the Vedas and Upanishads are thousands of years older than the base texts of European modern science, and even after the destruction of the Sanatani symbols in the thinking of modern so-called scholars, philosophers, etc., which are the product of Christian, Muslim, Communist sect ideologies, civilizations and beliefs, the remaining Sanatan scriptures remain. The sutras are the eternal truth of which 'Garbha Upanishad' is a direct example, which includes not only chromosomes, DNA, RNA but also the results of karma and gives advice for attaining salvation and guides one's progeny.
In fact, it is the best creation among human beings in which the qualities of non-living, non-living, multi-cellular organisms are transformed from a single drop of cells at the time of entry into the mother's womb, through the nutrition and protection of maternal power inside the womb, through the divine power including all organs and senses. The apostle, having been strengthened in the laboratory of the mother's womb for about nine months and having many specialties, comes out to enjoy the fruits of his actions and establish new patterns. This is so excellent that even the gods have to come in human form to meet God, there is no other way.